INTRODUCTION:

Lepidotera, the second largest order of class insecta after coleoptera has remained a greater area of attraction for various entomologist, researcher and biodiversity explorer all over the world family Psychidae been no exception. This family is characterized by presence of sexual diphorphism were the winged male has bipectinate antenna whereas female are worm like without appendages and annetnna. Earlier these insects were grouped in broad assemblages with Phalaena, Bombyx, Tinea no later than Schrank (1802)²¹ separated such diverse form by name genus psyche which he referred to as “Ein Blosser Eyer Sack” (a mere bag of eggs). Parthenogenesis is another distinguishing character nullifying the usual path of gametic fusion for larval production.

The phenomenon of parthenogenesis in wingless female was imparted from the knowledge of basketworms or bagworms featured in the manuscripts of Pallas (1767) ²¹The larvae produced are phytophagous and are majorly very serious pests of forest trees, ornamental plant and medicinal plant. Larval stages secure itself in silken bag protected with twig, spine, thorns, stem and branches. The preference of host studied in bagworms reveals there suitability and adaptability towards most of the tree species³. Construction of protective structures (Nest) for protecting themselves from natural enemies, unfavourable conditions is another salient feature of psychidae. Caterpillars have well developed silk glands and are usually peripneustic. Pupae are usually obtect. The constructive rule followed by bagworm species during nest construction is rhythmic fashioned with definite pattern of arrangement and therefore is not random². During nest construction process one stick is exceptionally and strictly kept longest, many stories among the folk of bastar region (Chhattisgarh, India) is common regarding the stick arrangement and its pattern, especially the belief related to length of sticks and rainfall. Increment pattern in length of the longest stick of bagworm nest in each consecutive instar was used to asses Dyar’s law (growth of insect larval cranium in geometric progression) in Eumeta crameri Westwood². All over world bagworm (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) includes approximately 1000 species³⁸. India, with diverse vegetation and biological habitat is expected home to one-third of the world total species of bagworm. An intensive exploration majorly in the Trans-Himalayan, Western Ghats, North-East India, Islands and Coastal region is indeed the need to construct a pest status map of bagworm in India. India recorded an outbreak of Cryptothelia crameri westwood a defoliator of Pinus roxburghii from state of Jammu and Kashmir in 1989-1990. The outbreak caused 5 percent tree mortality over 2000 ha with 0.3 million trees lost resulting in a net loss of 22.5 million rupees¹⁷. The first epidemic of this species was reported in 1885 from Tons Valley, Uttaranchal State¹⁷. It was subsequently recorded from Himachal Pradesh State in 1928¹⁷. This paper reviews the progress made so far in work dealing with Lepidotera: Pyschidae and discusses its future prospect in India.

Biodiversity:

Polyphagous and cosmopolitan natured insect: Bagworms, has dispersed diversity in India, subsequent study by different researcher lead to unfold a little more about it. Studies on the wing venation of Petroma plagiophleps Hamp., (Psychidae) collected from diferrent host plants and localities in Kerala state (India) have revealed the occurrence of 6 types of venational patterns within species. Venation of moths within any given population sample also varies. The study reveals the unrealibilty of using venation for the segregation of species belonging to the genus Pteroma. Further studies involving the morphology of adult as well as larval pars are required to resolve the correct identities of species belonging to this genus. Morphological studies of adult and larva must be considered to determine the species segregation and true identification of species²⁷. Mahasena theivora (Dudg.) and Metisa plana are minor pests of tea in north-east India¹⁵. Their natural enemies, if any, have not been investigated. Mahasena graminivora Hampson. is an unimportant pest of paddy in north-east India. The report of two bagworm species Pteroma plagiophelps Hampson and Clania species recorded on the cocoa foliage is the first from Andhra Pradesh¹⁶The evergreen bagworm Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis pest of Thuja orientalis grown in West Bengal³⁴. Cryptothelea (=Eumeta) cramerii, Shoots and leaves, Acanthopsyche moorei Leaves, Pteroma plagiophleps Leaves in sandalwood Santalum album³⁷. Leptispa pygmoea Baly has emerged as an important defoliator in Kerala. Case worms under poor drainage condition rice crop may suffer from case worm damage. The most common species is Nymphula depunctalis (Guen). Adult moths are tiny and white in color with spotted wings. The dynamic nature of bagworm species studied in India (Table 1.) suggest that there is an urgent need to initiate country-wide programs to study and describe the biology, behavior and prevalence of bagworms in Indian subcontinent per-se. It is also important to assess pest status of various bagworm species in India.

Table 1: List of potential pest species of bagworms in India with hosts.

Bagworm species	Host plant	Reference
Pteroma plagiophleps Hampson	Paraserianthes falcataria	(Nair and Mathew, 1992)
	Acacia nilotica	(Pillai and Gopi, 1990)
	Mangroves+J12	(Santhakumaran et al., 1995)
	Cocoa foliage	(Emmanuel, et al., 2010)
Mahasena graminivora Hampson		Sugar cane
Clania Sp.	Cocoa foliage	(Emmanuel, et al., 2010)
Mahasena theivora (Dudg.)	Tea	(Das, 1956)
Acanthopsyche minima Hampson		Banana
Brachycyttarus subteralbatus	Albizia falcataria,	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Hampson	Ailanthus triphysa,
	Citrus sp.
	Macaranga peltata,
	Syzygium sp.
	Tamarindus indica,
	Ornamental palms.
Eumeta crameri West wood	Camellia thea	(Nair, 1978)
(=Cryptothelia crameri)	Acacia sp.
	Albizia falcataria,
	Casuarina equisetifolia,
	Eucalyptus grandis,
	Gmelina arborea,
	Psidium guayava
	Grasses	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
	Eucalyptus torelliana	(Varma, 2007)
Eumeta variegata Senll	Trema orientalis,
	Casuarina equisetifolia	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Kophene cuprea Moore	Banana	(Brahmachari, 1938)
Manatha albipes Moore	Areca palm	(Nair, 1978)
	Coconut palm	(Mathen et al., 1962)
Melasina sp.	Unknown	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Metisa plana Walker	Albizia falcataria,
	Delonix regia,
	Tectona grandis,
	Teriminalia catappa	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
	Tea	(Das, 1956)
M. snelleni Heyl	Hevea braziliensis	(Nair, 1978)
Microcossus mackwoodi Walsh*	Unknown	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Oecelicoides bipars Walker	Cardamon	(Nair, 1978)
Pteroma plagiophleps Hampson	Tamarindus indica	(Ayyar, 1940)
	Pomegranate	(Aiyar, 1945)
	Albizia falcataria	(Nair et al., 1981)
	Delonix regia	(Mathew and Nair, 1983)
	Cana indica, cassia biflera,
	Emblica officinalis,
	Syzygium cumini,
	Ppulus deltoides,
	Tectona grandis,
	Trema orientalis	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Thyridopteryx sp.	Areca palm	(Nair, 1978)
	Thuja orientalis	(Patra and Bera, 2012)
Undetermined*	Oil palm	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Undetermined*	Eucalyptus torelliana,
	Vateria indica	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Undetermined*	Macaranga peltata	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)
Undetermined*	Cajanus cajan	(Mathew and Nair, 1986)

*New records from Kerala.

Case architecture:

Case construction behavior of bagworm moth, Eumeta crameri (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) studied in the host plant, Acacia nilotica. Shows that to fulfill the priority of case building bagworm posses an ability to process thorn length and distance signals hierarchically. Therefore it clearly ascertains time and energy expenditures while larval growth leading to pupation by adsorbing its choice between thorns and cut-twigs^33. In Indian Subcontinent E. crameri Westwood appears to be very common bagworm moth²⁸. Studies has shown that E. crameri have multiple hosts, namely Camelliathea, Acacia sp., Albizia falcataria, Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus grandia, Gmelina arborea, and Psidium guayava in southern part of India²⁹. E. crameri has also been reported from Bangladesh⁸ and has been known for the ability to infest a large and varied number of plant species, including Litchi chinensis, Thuja sp., Quisqualis indica, Rosa sp., Punica granatum, Bougainvillea sp., Ficus religiosa and Saraca indica⁸. Ameen and Sultana (1977)⁸ have reported life cycle of E. crameri and some more interesting aspect regarding biology of E. crameri Westwood revealed²⁹ buts a very basic problem felt in the study of the life cycle of any bagworm moth was to unfold the number of larval instars it bears. After hatching, the young larva makes a protective silken bag (nest) around its body followed by sticking of leaves/ thorns/sticks/spines/twigs, etc. over its original case. The entire process of growth and development of the larva takes place inside the case and therefore larva could not be taken out of nest. During the movement of nested larva only the head and thorax comes out of the nest and it retreats inside the case, as soon as it notices any disturbing provocation. Case renovation, being a characteristic feature of the life cycle of most of bagworm species attracted the attention of Agrawal and Pati (2003)⁵ to study the number of larval instars through which E. crameri undergoes metamorphosis till its journey towards adulthood. The study unfolded the exact number of larval instars and acknowledges on behavioural pattern of case renovation in addition to case renovation cycle in E. crameri. The larva was found to renovate its case thrices during the course of its growth and development. During each instance of nest renovation, increase in the volume of nest was noticed, which undertook by replacing older sticks by newer and longer ones. Agrawal and Pati (2002)⁴ computed Dyar’s coefficient by measuring the length of the longest sticks (inanimate object) in addition to larval length and head capsule width soon after the completion of each instance of case renovation, they also observed that increase in the size of the longest stick during successive instances of case renovation follows Dyar’s law very closely.

Infestation:

According to Nair and Mathew (1992)³⁰ Infestation characteristics of polyphagous bagworm species feeding on several unrelated families showed 3 types of infestation: (1) heavy pest level infestation affecting a large number of trees of particular species in a patch within a plantation; (2) heavy infestation of isolated trees in natural areas leaving other trees of the same species in the vicinity unaffected; and (3) sparse unnoticeable infestation of several species. The heavy infestation is dependent on host stress which would lead to outbreaks as exemplified by infestation of Eucalyptus sp. in SO₂-stressed environment³⁰Agrawal (2002)⁴ examined bagworm infestation randomly in different sites located in various districts of Chhattisgarh and observed a large number of plants (14,177) belonging to 20 families and 36 species were to ascertain infestation status. The level of infestation (S0 – S4) was determined by using visual score assignment system³⁰. Construction of seasonal infestation profile of bagworm, Eumeta crameri in the Chhattisgarh region was undertaken based on data recorded over a time scale of twelve consecutive months in which two plantation sites consisting of 433 Acacia nilotica and 517 Peltophorum pterocarpum tree were chosen for the purpose and statistically significant annual rhythm in infestation characteristics was validated by employing Cosinor technique⁶. The potentiality of bagworm as pest has been studied by several workers^18,35,20,30. Bagworms have been documented as a serious defoliator of ornamental shrubs and trees throughout the Southeast and lower Midwest²⁴ of North America. P. plagiophleps has been reported as a pest on Albizia falcateria and Delonix regia^7,28 in Kerala. In monocropping, bagworms may flare up to be potential pests.

Economic importance:

Several species of bagworms have been described as well known and established pests of diverse plant species (Table-1). Larvae of the bagworm Eumeta hardenbergi Bourgogne feed on leaves and bark of guayule, Parthenium argentatum Gray⁹. E. hardenbergi has been considered as a potential pest of Guayule plantations in areas of Southern Africa. It has been estimated that losses of rubber yield are very high approximately 100 kg ha^-1 on account of infestation with E. hardenbergi and another unidentified bagworm species⁹. Metisa plana from Malaysia has been reported to cause 44% oil palm crop loss^11,22. Ecuadorian bagworm species, Oiketicus kirbyi has been described as a serious defoliator of forest plantations in Ecological reserve of Churute, Ecuador¹⁸. In February 1989 O. kirbyi defoliated almost 1200 ha of the forest reserve¹⁸. In Thailand Canephora unicolor has been described as a serious pest of Pterocarpus indicus and Eucalyptus camaldulensis²³. Pteroma plagiophleps Hampson has been described as a notorious pest of Paraserianthes falcataria (= Albizia falcataria) plantations in Kerala, India³⁰. In a 20 ha plantation of P. falcataria studied repeated defoliation over more than two years caused death of 22% of trees and inflicted severe damage to another 17%³⁰. P. plagiophleps Hamson has also been described as a pest of Acacia nilotica plantations in Kerala, India³⁵. Another species of bagworm, Pteroma pendula has been described as a serious pest of oil palm and forest tree species, Acacia mangium Willd^41.

There is evidence to suggest occurrence of mutualism between Lichenophagous bagworm larvae and endolithic lichens. This example comes from a study conducted in the Golden Gate Highlands National Park, South Africa⁴⁷. Bagworm larvae utilize endolithic lichens as food source and contribute to dispersal of the lichens. Interestingly, the larvae further contribute an estimated 200g of organic matter per hectare per year to the Golden Gate Highlands National Park, South Africa and take part in the cycling of elements in the micro-ecosystem⁴⁷.

Host preference:

Ward and coworkers (1990)⁴⁵ demonstrated that bagworm, Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis selects host on the basis of quality. Studies have also been conducted to examine the influence of host type and host switching on nutritional preference of the bagworm, T. ephemeraeformis^31,45,46. Host preference in bagworms, Eumeta crameri was examined by using a multipurpose choice test in which the bagworms larvae were harvested from the host plant, Acacia nilotica an economically important plant species of Chhattisgarh region³. Agrawal and Pati (2000)³ conducted the experiment in four replicates each during 1^st,2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th and late 4^th instar of larval growth and development and order of host preference noticed was: Phyllantus emblica >Thuja orientalis > Clerodendron indicum > Terminalia arjuna > Dalberiga sisso > Peltophorum pterocarpum > Gmelina arborea >Tectona grandis > Ixora coccinea > Pterocarpus marsupium >Albizza lebbeck >Azadirecta indica. These indicated clearly that Eumeta crameri a polyphagous species can switch to any host at its will.

Control measures:

Several procedures have been recommended for controlling bagworm populations. They include fumigation, manual hand picking and spraying of infested plants with Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, a microbial insecticide or with entomopathogenic nematodes¹⁹ or with a chemical insecticide^43,14,19. However, it is difficult to control the larger larvae with chemicals¹⁴. Worldwide work has been done to control and prevent the valuable trees from the defoliator bagworms. Hand picking nested larvae and destroying it is the proven way to control it• Use of pheromone. However, pheromonal studies in bagworms have been conducted only in a few species^{12,40,39,24,25}. Zhao (1988)⁴⁸ has demonstrated endocrine control of sex pheromones in bagworms. Rhainds et al. (1994)⁴⁰ suggested that in O. kirbyi multiple sex pheromone component blend of chiral esters might have been evolved to maintain species-specific communication in bagworm communities of tropical Americas. (R)-1 methylbutyl decanoate has been identified as the female sex pheromone in Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis Haworth²⁴. There is strong evidence to suggest that in bagworm moths mate selection is based on elaborate network of pheromonal system^24,40. The pheromonal system of any one of the Indian species is yet to be examined.

CONCLUSION:

This brief review of literature indicates that there is an urgent need to initiate country wide programs for favour of studying and describing biology, behaviour of bagworms and their prevalence in this subcontinent. It is indeed surprising that except in some part of Kerala and our lab and no attempt has ever been made to study biology and behaviour of bagworm species located in other regions of this vast country

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

We thank Prof. A. K. Gupta, Head, School of Life sciences, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur for encouragement and support.

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Received on 17.07.2022 Modified on 19.08.2022

Res. J. Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics.2022;14(4):263-267.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5836.2022.00045